## Tuesday, September 29, 2015

### Liars, Logic, and Information Theory

One of the most common types of logic puzzles involves two tribes, one that always tells the truth and another that always tells lies. There are many versions and variations of puzzles with this setup, but we can develop a method of approach that will work generally. The two main versions fall into 2 categories:
1. Identification: we have a group of N people with some known possible set of identifications, and we ask questions to determine what tribe each is from.
2. Information: We have a group of N people with some known possible set of identifications, and we ask them questions to determine M bits of information (independent yes/no questions). We do not need to identify the tribe of each person. For concreteness, we will take the bits to be 1s or 0s (i.e. we want to find whether the bit is 1 or 0)
The questions must be asked individually, and must be yes/no questions. We assume that the persons asked know all information relevant to the puzzle and understand the questions, supposing they are comprehensible.

### A Brief Primer in some Information concepts

The fundamental unit of information is the bit. A single bit answers one yes/no question. If both answers are equally likely, the answer gives the most information, as otherwise you could guess the answer more easily. (In fact, the formula for the effective number of bits, if the chance of a "yes" answer is p, is given by: $-p\log_2(p)-(1-p)\log_2(1-p) \approx 4p(1-p)$). If there are $2^N$ equally possible options, it takes N bits of information to narrow it down to one: in general, an additional bit halves the possibility space. If there are M possibilities, and $2^{N-1}< M \leq 2^N$, then N bits of information are required. From a deterministic source--that is, a source with known, predictable behavior--one answer to one yes/no question yields at most 1 bit of information, and exactly one if both answers are equally probable. In general, if we discover M bits of information with N questions, if we only want a smaller number of bits, we will need fewer questions.

We will discuss some specific cases, describing some general methods of approaching the problem. We will forgo trivial cases, like asking a 1-bit question to someone of a known tribe, or identifying a person from an unknown tribe.

### Information: One Person of Unknown Tribe, One Bit

Clearly we must ask at least one question, but can we determine it in exactly one question? Indeed we can. Our goal is to formulate a question such that, regardless of whether the person is a liar or a truther, the answer will correspond to the truth. We thus construct the following table, and look for a question such which would produce the listed "real answers" (answers taking into account whether the teller is a liar or truther).

 Bit Value Identity Given Answer Honest Answer 1 Truther Yes Yes 1 Liar Yes No 0 Truther No No 0 Liar No Yes

The simplest way to construct such a question is just to ask one that corresponds to affirmative answers. In this case, the most easily constructed question is
Is one of the following true: the bit is 1 and you are a truther, the bit is 0 and you are a liar?
Regardless of whether the person asked is a truther or liar, the answer will always be "yes" if the bit is 1 and "no" if it is 0. The question may be found to simplify to something more natural sounding, but the question as given is sufficient. Moreover, if we require N bits of information, we can achieve such in exactly N questions. This will be our general approach. We will make a table in which the given answer corresponds to the information we seek. We will then formulate a question such as to produce the desired answer. This can be done most easily by forming a disjunction of the answers producing an affirmative.

### Identification: One Person of Unknown Tribe, Unknown Language

In this case, the tribespeople have a language different than yours. They can understand your questions but reply in a way you can't understand. We will assume that you know the words for "yes" and "no" are "da" and "ja", but you don't know which corresponds to which. If you do not even know what the possible words for "yes" and "no" are, you can find this out with one additional question, merely by asking anything and then knowing that the response either means "yes" or "no". The question is then whether you can identify the tribe of the person, and in as few questions as possible. Given that we only seek one bit of information (the person is either a truther or a liar), we will attempt to do so with a single question. We will look for a question such that the response corresponds to the identity of the person. For concreteness, we will take "Da" to be indicative of a truther, "Ja" of a liar.

 Identity Translation of "Da" Given Answer Translated Answer Honest Answer Truther Yes Da Yes Yes Truther No Da No No Liar Yes Ja No Yes Liar No Ja Yes No

Again, the simplest way to construct such a question is just to ask one that corresponds to affirmative answers, by a simple disjunction. In this case, the honest answer is "yes" exactly when "Da" means "yes". So we simply ask:
Does "Da" mean "yes"?
A truther will always answer "Da", and a liar will always answer "Ja". Note that we cannot determine what "Da" actually means from this question, and this accords with information theory concepts. We can only get one bit of information from one question. If we wanted to identify what "Da" meant without knowing the identiy, by a similar method we would find that the following question achieves that:
Is one of the following true: "Da" means "yes" and you are a truther, "Da" means "no" and you are a liar?
If the answer is "Da", "Da" means "yes".

### Information: One Person of Unknown Tribe, Unknown Language, One Bit

This case is much like the preceding one, except we require neither then meaning of "Da" nor the identity of the person. As we need only one bit of information, we require at least one question. We will show how to do it in exactly one question. As before, we construct a table, but this time with three independent variables: the value of the bit, the identity of the person, and the meaning of "Da".

 Bit Value Identity Translation of "Da" Given Answer Translated Answer Honest Answer 1 Truther Yes Da Yes Yes 1 Truther No Da No No 1 Liar Yes Da Yes No 1 Liar No Da No Yes 0 Truther Yes Ja No No 0 Truther No Ja Yes Yes 0 Liar Yes Ja No Yes 0 Liar No Ja Yes No

By the same method, the easiest (though not simplest) question to ask is:
Is one of the following true: you are a truther and "Da" means "yes" and the bit is 1, you are a liar and "Da" means "no" and the bit is 1, you are a truther and "Da" means "no" and the bit is 0, you are a liar and "Da" means "yes" and the bit is 0 ?
A simpler way would be to ask:
Is an odd number of the following true: the bit is 1, you are a truther, "Da" means "yes"?
In general, we can see that we can always get exactly one bit of information from one question, given certain other constraints. Not knowing the language or the identity of the person asked are no hindrances to getting information. Also, if we have $2^M$ people from potentially different tribes who speak the same unknown language, or even if we only know the potential words for "yes" and "no" for one of their languages, we can still identify all of them in exactly M questions just by asking the one person M questions.